Introduction: Theoretical physics is a mechanical interpretation of the operation of a Universe that gave birth to intelligent life. Its mechanical interpretation is inherently unnatural. It cannot predict nor explain the nature of this Universe with its products of life, intelligence, and upward direction. Even within physics’ mechanical interpretation, the usefulness of physics is not evidence of the correctness of professionally accepted theoretical causes of observed mechanical effects.
Findings for existence:
A1. The mechanics of the Universe is fundamentally unified. Fundamental unity requires that there be just one cause for all such effects. This follows from the recognition that only a fundamentally unified Universe can exist.
A2. The mechanical operation of the Universe contains no natural uncertainty. Properties are learned from patterns observed in the acceleration of objects. The patterns are the activity of a controlled Universe. The activity of the Universe is always meaningful, exact, and controlled.
A3. All mechanical effects that have ever occurred or will ever occur, have been provided for from the beginning of the Universe. This finding results from the recognition that no natural cause can be added to the Universe after its beginning.
Theoretical physics contradicts these findings:
a1. Theoretical physics is founded upon a lack of fundamental unity. It finds that there is more than one fundamental force. It envisions unity as something like a super force added on at the completion of theoretical physics. It fails to recognize that fundamental unity is something that must always be present. It must be apparent in all physics equations at the time they are derived.
a2. Theoretical physics finds that mechanical uncertainty is inherent and is revealed to us by the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. The author’s finding is that the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is a misinterpretation of an equation that establishes certainty.
a3. The requirement that all effects were provided for at the beginning of the Universe eliminates the late introduction of givens. It removes the practice by theoretical physics of accepting the sudden appearance of new properties on the basis that they emerge out of nature’s background existence. There is no background existence. There are only properties that are provided at the beginning and are learned individually from direct empirical evidence. Direct empirical evidence consists of observing patterns in the acceleration of objects.
Theoretical physics: There are problems with theoretical physics. Four major deficiencies of theoretical physics are addressed:
B1. One major deficiency of theoretical physics is its lack of respect for formal definitions of properties.
B2. A second deficiency is a lack of understanding of the fundamental role played by units of measurement.
B3. A third deficiency is the elevation of indirect empirical evidence as sufficient support for theoretical ideas to be inserted into physics equations.
B4. The fourth deficiency is the acceptance of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
Explanations of and corrections to these deficiencies:
b1. The historical correct method for establishing a formal physics definition is to express, in equation form, what the defined property is equal to in terms of other properties that have been previously introduced to us by direct empirical evidence. Each defined property must be defined at the time that it is first introduced to us by its direct empirical evidence. The very necessary benefit of following that method is that it maintains dependence upon direct empirical evidence. This dependency is what maintains the existence of fundamental unity. It also is what keeps definitions capable of informing us what each property is. If this method is maintained from the beginning of physics equations, it establishes the presence of fundamental unity in the first equation of physics and retains that unity for all equations that follow. Formal physics definitions are learned only from direct empirical evidence.
Examples of formally defined properties are energy, E=fd, and momentum, P=ft. Examples of properties that have never received their formal physics definition are length, duration, space, time, mass, temperature, and electric charge. When a property lacks a formal definition, it is assigned a ‘rule of measurement’. That rule provides the mathematical basis for representing each undefined property in equations.
Theoretical physicists changed the phrase ‘rule of measurement’ to ‘operational definition’ giving the impression that measuring a property is the same as defining the property. Measuring a property is done by measuring effects. The result is we are offered descriptions of what a property does and are told that we have been given a definition. We do not learn what the property is from an “operational definition”. A correct formal definition tells us what a property is.
The first error of theoretical physics was the failure to formally define the property of mass. This failure caused the immediate loss of fundamental unity from theoretical physics. Present mainstream physics does not contain fundamental unity. This unnatural condition was set very early when mass was declared to be the third indefinable property of physics. That theoretical decision immediately lost fundamental unity for the equation f=ma and the equations that followed. The only way to regain the presence of fundamental unity in physics equations is for physicists to go all the way back to f=ma and formally define mass.
The activities of the Universe are exact. The patterns observed in direct empirical evidence are never exactly repeated but are always exact in the meaning that they are communicating to us. Our measurements of them are never exact, and our knowledge about them is never exact. However, the Universe communicates this information with exactness.
Direct empirical evidence consists of effects only. We learn what cause does but not what cause is. Interpretations by theoretical physics of what is a cause are unsubstantiated. The strengths of physics are its very close measurements and, its ability to mathematically model physical relationships so that those models yield accurate predictions. It is a very useful science as it exists today. Its successful predictions are its most valuable product. However, aside from the successful predictions, its weaknesses are severe.
Any physics interpretation of action for time or space is automatically false. That is because physicists can do nothing to experiment, examine, manipulate, or formally define either of those properties. In general, theoretical physics knows no causes. Even when this author writes that the first cause is the variation of the speed of light, it is not correct. The first cause is the cause of the variation of the speed of light.
b2. The second major deficiency of theoretical physics is that physicists have lifted-up indirect empirical evidence as sufficient support for theoretical ideas about the nature of the Universe. Examples are their use of the immeasurable properties of space and time. They have no direct empirical support for teaching what space or time does to objects and vice versa. They have invented property effects that lack any direct empirical support. Examples are space contraction, time dilation, and alleged physical dimensions above three. They guess about the natures of properties that lack formal definitions. We do not learn what a property is from its ‘rule of measurement’. Instead of always admitting what is not known, mainstream physics takes credit for knowing what a property is by giving examples of what it does. Examples of what a property does is not a source for learning what a property is. An example of pretending to explain what a property is when that property is unknown is the offering of an explanation in the form of “The property is a measure of another property.” No property is a measure of another property. That is why each property has its own unit of measurement.
b3. All physics properties are represented in calculable physics equations solely by their units. We can know what it is that physicists are measuring and representing to us by looking at the units of measurement they use in their equations. The unit of length, the meter, is not a specimen of space. It is an object-related unit of measurement. The unit of duration, the second, is not a specimen of time. It is a count of the cyclic activity of a selected object.
All direct empirical evidence consists of objects affecting objects. An object is something that has a velocity that can be caused to change. Everything we learn from direct empirical evidence consists of observing patterns in changes of velocities of objects. Theoretical physics consists of the practice of substituting guesses about what might be usefully substituted into physics equations in place of the unknown. Examples of properties whose mainstream identities are formed from guesses are mass, electric charge, temperature, and a substantive form for energy. Additionally, all physics properties appear in physics equations. Examples of theoretical properties that never appear in physics equations are space, time, and matter.
b4. Heisenberg introduced the idea of uncertainty as a problem in measurements. The idea was that the test particles affect the positions and velocities of particles that are being tested. The idea of uncertainty being a part of the nature of the Universe was added afterward. ‘Natural uncertainty’ was deduced from the idea that there is a wave nature to particles as well as for electromagnetism. Determining the frequency of a wave requires measuring the wave over an infinite distance. Any distance less than that leaves the frequency uncertain. The units tell us what it is that is being measured and, thereby, what it is that physicists are describing other than opinion or idea.
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle has units of Newtons*meters*seconds. The fundamental unity that this author writes about uses empirical units only. Empirical units are formed from defining mass. The empirical units of force are a ratio of the units of two accelerations. The accelerations are our source for learning about physics properties. For example, the letter ‘a’ in f=ma represents its direct empirical evidence. The units for mass are found to be the units of acceleration but inverted. The unit of the Newton converted to empirical units consists of the ratio of the units of the acceleration of an object, in the numerator, and the units of the local acceleration of light due to the object in the denominator. This condition does not make ‘force’ dimensionless. Its units are formed by a ratio of the units of two accelerations.
What does become allowed is that force can be either singular or squared and the units still match. Fundamental unity looks very different from fundamental disunity. The physics involved changes from theoretical physics to empirically guided and supported physics. The units of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle are not the physically meaningless Newtons*meters*seconds. They are the empirically derived units of Newtons^2*meters*seconds that represent the physically meaningful product of the properties of energy and momentum. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle becomes a statement that the most efficient movement of objects is for the product of energy and momentum to be a constant. This condition is the same condition that supports the Least Action Principle which also has the units of Newtons*meters*seconds. The realization that force can be force^2 and still have units match is the explanation why a freely falling object will follow a path during which the product of energy and momentum is conserved. The idea for force having units that reduce to unity follows directly from successfully giving mass its formal definition. Support work for this finding and each finding presented here is referenced.
The uncertainty of frequency for the wave nature is not necessary to account for. Relativity theory is replaced with variable speed of light physics. Its derivation of replacement equations includes one for Einstein’s kinetic energy equation. The new equation contains a term that shows the physical origin of our concept for frequency without the need for a wave nature.
Fundamental physics must be founded upon three requirements:
C1. All interpretations of properties must be dependent upon the guidance provided by Direct Empirical Evidence.
C2. Fundamental Unity must be present starting with the equation f=ma and remain present in physics equations that follow. No Universe can exist if it is not fundamentally unified. Fundamental Unity requires that there be just one cause for all effects.
C3. Every physics property, except length and what physicists unjustifiably call ‘time’, must be formally defined. The property to be defined must be defined at the time that it is introduced to us by direct empirical evidence. Length and ‘time’ are permanently indefinable. There are no properties introduced to us before length and ‘time’. This is the case because Direct Empirical Evidence is communicated to us in terms of measures of length and ‘time’
The empirical system of units: When Physics is reformulated based upon the three requirements, the equations of physics no longer leave opportunities for theoretical physicists to insert their guesses into physics equations. The answers about the natures of properties are learned from leads provided by their direct empirical evidence. Theoretical physics becomes unnecessary. Equations are established that use and reveal natural knowledge. Guessing no longer has a place in equations.
Fundamental unity becomes represented in the units of all physics properties. All units become expressible as combinations of meters and seconds only. This condition follows automatically from formally defining the property of mass. Its formal definition must express mass in terms of some combination of length and ‘time’ only. This requires that the kilogram be expressed in terms of some combination of meters and seconds only. The definition of mass and the definition of the kilogram cause all other properties to be expressed in terms of length and ‘time’ only and their units to be expressed in terms of meters and seconds only. This is what fundamental unity looks like.
The derivation of fundamentally unified physics begins with formally defining the properties introduced to us in the equation f=ma. The two properties introduced are force and mass. Force is the general representation of cause. All direct empirical evidence consists of observing effects only. We do not observe cause. We learn what cause does but not what cause is. For this reason, we cannot learn what force is. Even though we cannot know the nature of force, once mass is formally defined, force also, and immediately so, becomes formally defined by f=ma.
First, we need to define mass. It is the property of mass that bridges between physics and that which direct empirical evidence is attempting to communicate to us. We can learn what each property is by following the lead provided to us by its direct empirical evidence. In the equation f=ma, direct empirical evidence is represented by the letter ‘a’ for acceleration. The two properties needed to express acceleration are length and duration. The unit for length is the meter. The unit for duration is the second. Solving the equation f=ma for f/m=a shows us that the direct empirical evidence for the existence of mass provides the lead that the units of force divided by the units of mass must reduce to the units of acceleration.
Following the lead that the units of force divided by the units of mass must reduce to the units of acceleration, i.e., [(meters/second)/second], we have a few possible choices for what the units of force and mass can be. The one choice that leads to the reformulation of the equations of physics with fundamental unity restored and permanently present is for mass to have the units of acceleration but inverted, i.e., 1/[(meters/second)/second]. From this, we learn that mass is not a fundamental property. Instead, we learn that it is the inverse representation of the acceleration of some other fundamental property. The identity of that other property must be learned now before advancing.
There are just two properties introduced thus far as being the means by which direct empirical evidence is communicated to us. However, there was also a third property present though not mentioned directly. That property is the property that delivers the information about the acceleration of a particle located in some other place during some other ‘time’. It is the property of light that delivers information about the acceleration of particles. This third property is the single cause for all effects. The acceleration of objects is caused by electromagnetism. Electromagnetism is the temporary understanding of what light is. It is temporary because the nature of electric charge must yet be revealed. We can learn what it is by continuing the derivation of physics properties and the equations in which they are used.
Challenges: How can a single cause produce seemingly unrelated types of effects?
D1. How can light accelerate since Relativity Theory, which depends upon the speed of light is a constant is so proven by its many successful predictions?
D2. Electric charge causes light. How can light replace its cause?
D3. Gravity is the cause of increasing and decreasing the energy of light. How can light take the place of gravity as its own cause?
Responses: The references at the end are links to sites where the original work to support these answers is located. One is the author’s page here at Academia.edu. d1. The theory of Relativity rests upon two claims. One is that time dilates. The other is that space contracts. There is no direct empirical evidence that time dilates or that space contracts. There are no predictions that time dilates or that space contracts. Neither time nor space has ever been directly represented in anyone’s physics equations. Both have always been substituted by object-related rules of measurement. The unit of the second is not a specimen of time. The unit of the meter is not a specimen of space. Exchange the acceleration of time for the acceleration of light and predictions remain consistent.
d2. There is the strange circumstance that the magnitude of fundamental electric charge is the same magnitude as the time it takes for light to travel the radius of the hydrogen atom. Electric charge is formally undefined and unexplained. Its existence is simply assumed. Investigating the coincidence of the magnitudes leads to learning the formal definition of electric charge. Its definition permits it to be replaced by the single cause for all mechanical effects.
d3. An equation that is written to show that gravity causes the energy of photons to vary can be read backward. Backward it says that the varying energy of photons causes the effect we call gravity. A varying speed of light accounts for changes in photon energy.
Conclusions: The equation f=ma introduces two properties, i.e., force and mass. These are the only two properties that are introduced to us directly. All other physics properties are learned from our use of force, mass, length, and duration. All physics properties are represented in calculable physics equations solely by their units, for this reason, we follow the units as our means of advancing the derivation of the rest of physics. The equation f=ma arrived at us with fundamental unity intact and because mass is successfully formally defined here. based upon the lead provided by its direct empirical evidence, fundamental unity is preserved. The rest of physics is derived using empirical units. All additional empirical units are formed from combinations of the units of mass, length, and ‘time’. The units of mass, length, and time are combinations of the meter and second only. The rest of the units of physics will necessarily also consist of combinations of the meter and second only. This is what theoretical physics is not, and what empirical physics must be. Empirical physics with its empirical units describes a fundamentally unified Universe.